I am regularly asked questions by readers on the subject of the influence of Chinese martial arts on the technique of O Sensei. On this, as well as other unlikely theories, my default stance is that extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence, and I usually don't elaborate further. The decision of writing an article addressing the question materialized when practitioners offered me a book called "Le Rituel du Dragon – Les sources arts martiaux" at the end of one of one of my seminars in Paris. The author, Georges Charles, is one of the pioneers of Chinese martial arts in France and in his book, goes back to the source of Chinese internal martis read to be very interesting but in spite of its many merits, I must admit that I have some objections regarding a passage where Georges Charles explains that Ueshiba Morihei, the founder of Aikido, derived his incredible technique and his mastery of ki not from his training in Japanese budo, but from the teaching that he may have received from great Chinese masters. Georges Charles goes further by claiming the existence of a sort of conspiracy aimed at denying this legacy.
This idea is not new and it has appeared in several forms, both in France and across the Atlantic, in particular through someone called Bruce Frantzis, who attended classes at the Hombu Dojo during Ueshiba Morihei's lifetime between 1967 and 1969.Frantzis, Bruce - The Power of Internal Martial Arts and Chi: Combat and Energy Secrets of Ba Gua, Tai Chi and Hsing-I Before going further, it is important to clarify what we are talking about. It is not a question of opposing China and Japan, nor of knowing if Japanese martial arts took some inspiration from certain Chinese concepts. It is obvious that many Japanese cultural, philosophical and religious assets owe a great deal to Chinese civilization, including martial arts. The question raised by people such as Bruce Frantzis and Georges Charles is whether Ueshiba Morihei directly learned Chinese martial arts, in particular baguazhang, during his trips to China and whether:
- these teachings are found in the aikido techniques of Ueshiba Morihei
- these elements cannot be found in the art(s) that he studied in Japan before or after that period
As with any epistemic debate, it is up to the party presenting a theory to provide evidence to support their claims, and it is not up to the opposing party to prove the contrary (it is impossible to prove a negative). The position of Bruce Frantzis and Georges Charles is based, to my knowledge, only on assumptions, weak correlations (even if they were strong, a correlation does not imply causation), and, I think, an erroneous representation of the history of aikido as well as that of China-Japan relations in the 20th century. On the other hand, the most widely accepted history (the one to which Georges Charles is opposed to) on the origin of Ueshiba Morihei's techniques is supported by a large body of evidence, which has been studied and cross-checked by numerous researchers (Stanley Pranin, Peter Goldsbury, Ellis Amdur, to name a few). Since the two points of view are mutually exclusive, it seems obvious to me that the balance is largely in favor of history as we know it.
Manifestation of ki: in the footsteps of Chinese teaching
The Russo-Japanese War
Ueshiba Morihei made his first trip to Manchuria between 1904 and 1905 as an infantryman. Given his low rank, the strict discipline of the military, and the colonialist mentality of the Japanese, it seems highly unlikely that Morihei would have had the time, the opportunity, or even the inclination to study Chinese arts during this stay.Pranin, Stanley – The Elusive Chinese Influence on Aikido It is furthermore inconceivable that he could have left his regiment at any time. His son Kisshomaru said of Morihei that he had no interest in Chinese martial arts and to more illustrate Ueshiba Morihei's state of mind at the time, it should be remembered that he would have said the following in the 1940s:
「柔道は支那から来たものだからケガラワシイ。」Judo is something that comes from China, so it's dirty / dishonest! Words of Ueshiba Morihei as reported by Kimura Aru (木村 果 – 合気道の思い出)
It also seems logical that on the Chinese side, there would have been limited incentive to teach martial techniques to the foreign forces, whether they were Russian or Japanese. At the time, the Japanese army’s main focus would have been to fight off the Russian army. In other words, Ueshiba was in active military action, he was not a not part of an occupying force which subsequently gave people like Takeda Hiroshi (a civilian) and Sawai Kenichi time to learn tongbeiquan and tachengquan, respectively (both in the 1930’s). As an additional note for context, we are talking about a period ten years prior to the meeting between Ueshiba Morihei and Takeda Sokaku in Hokkaido.
Expedition alongside Deguchi Onisaburo
On February 15, 1924, Ueshiba Morihei returned to Manchuria, this time as the bodyguard of Reverend Deguchi Onisaburo, the leader of the Omoto Kyo sect.Ueshiba, Kisshomaru – A Life in Aikido: The Biography of Founder Morihei Ueshiba Given the nomadic nature of the group and the frequent ambushes they faced, it once again seems quite unlikely that Ueshiba Morihei would have had the opportunity and time to learn from a Chinese master. In addition, Deguchi's group was quickly decimated by the Chinese army and the survivors, including Ueshiba and Deguchi, were captured on June 20 and were almost executed. The group was repatriated to Japan on July 25, 1924.Ueshiba, Kisshomaru – A Life in Aikido: The Biography of Founder Morihei Ueshiba
Second and third from the left, Deguchi Onisaburo and Ueshiba Morihei, chains on their feet, awaiting execution.
Regarding this expedition, Georges Charles writes:
Ueshiba met several renowned Chinese masters who initiated him into Taoist cosmogony and Baguazhang (Pa Kua Chang or “Palm of Eight Trigrams”), which represented the most esoteric form of the Arts of the Internal Fist. Georges Charles- Le Rituel du Dragon p.459
He also adds:
That this can still astonish practitioners and, even more so, teachers of Aikido is surprising, because it is difficult to imagine that an enthusiast of the Knightly Arts (or “martial”!) - therefore Budo or Wu Tao - like Master Ueshiba would stay nearly a year in China, even in Mongolia, and spend his time peacefully reading the newspaper or wandering from tea house to tea house. Georges Charles - Le Rituel du Dragon p.459
In reality, we are talking about a stay of five months, not a year, in a militia caravan traveling from eastern China to Mongolia in hostile territory, and not of a walk in the park, as Georges Charles seems to suggest. Moreover, while it is perfectly plausible that Ueshiba might have wrestled with its hosts, as the Mongolian tradition dictates, according to my sources, Chinese baguazhang was simply not known in the region at the time.Ellis Amdur - Personal communicationChris Li - Personal communication
Georges Charles nevertheless specifies:
The expedition ended in a fiasco, but, in the meantime, Master Ueshiba had the opportunity to discover, and this at the highest level, the Chinese Internal Arts. The sinized name of Master Ueshiba (Wei Qiba or Wai Chi Pa) appears in the genealogical records (Baishi) of the Baguazhang schools of Masters Chou Xiang (Tchou Hsiang), YanTewa (Yen Te Hua) and Gao Yisheng (Kao I Sheng). Georges Charles - Le Rituel du Dragon p.464
Here, the author refers to evidence that he apparently got from someone called Lee Ying Argn, but unfortunately, he does not reproduce the said archives in his work. Again, it seems unlikely that Ueshiba Morihei could have dedicated the time necessary to such a practice, especially to the point of being registered in the books of these schools. Still, we can try to find out who these people were.
When I asked Ellis Amdur, he replied that Gai Yisheng lived in Tianjin, a town which was located more than 1000 km from Manchuria or the eastern border of Mongolia, and that it was not conceivable that Ueshiba Morihei could have learned from him during his five months of wandering with Deguchi.Ellis Amdur - Personal communication
Expedition in Mongolia (Deguchi Onisaburo in the center, Ueshiba Morihei, second from the right).
Other sources in Chinese martial arts interviewed at my request by Christopher Li confirmed that in fact, the three teachers cited by Georges Charles come from the line of Cheng Tinghua and that they also lived in TianjinChris Li, personal communication. Given the political climate at the time and the fact that members of the baguazhang groups in Beijing (notably Cheng Tinghua) were involved in the fighting against the Allied armies, of which Japan was a part, it is very doubtful that they would have accepted a national of the occupation force as an official memberChris Li - Personal communication.
What about Lee Ying Argn, the source of Georges Charles? Ellis Amdur and Mike Sigman, both contacted independently, paint an unflattering portrait of Lee Ying Argn as a dilettante with a questionable reputation in Chinese martial arts. According to them, although he mastered certain forms, he does not have a real lineage in baguazhangEllis Amdur - Personal communicationChris Li - Personal communication and neither Amdur nor Sigman give much credit in what he writes. In the absence of proof and with such a questionable source, one can therefore doubt the argument of Georges Charles. Another source close to this line of baguazhang, also interviewed at my request by Christopher Li says that he has never seen either Wei-Chi-Ba or other variants of this name in the tables of the baguazhang line at his disposalChris Li - Personal communication. According to Ellis Amdur, baguazhang is one of the longest and most difficult Chinese systems to learn and the characteristic circular steps and compressions and twists phenomena are not present in Ueshiba Morihei's aikido.Amdur, Ellis – Discussion on E-budo In addition, CS Tsang, a teacher from baguazhang and prolific authorTsang, CS – The Mysterious Power of Xingyi Quan: A Complete Guide to History, Weapons and Fighting Skills said the following when he was asked the question:
[If Ueshiba had learned bagua] we should see that most of his movements come from baguazhang […] CS Tsang
So here we have a real baguazhang specialist explaining that he does not see the hallmarks of his discipline in the technical form of Ueshiba Morihei. He also thinks it worthwhile to add the following to his answer:
[…] So far there is no written evidence to suggest that he [Ueshiba] learned during his capture in China. CS Tsang
We can therefore see that more credible sources than that of Georges Charles, some from Japanese martial arts, others from Chinese martial arts, are unanimous: all this is pure speculation.
Return to China
Ueshiba Morihei made the last three of his five known stays in China in 1939, 1940, and 1942, during the Japanese occupation, under the invitation of his student Tomiki Kenji to demonstrate and teach his art at the University of Kenkoku. He only spent a few weeks there each time and both because of his status as occupier and recognized expert, as well as the tight schedule of each visit, it is once again difficult to imagine that he could have placed himself under the tutelage of a Chinese master. Ueshiba Morihei has, however, attended demonstrations of Chinese martial arts, but the only direct statement that we have from him pertain to his appreciation of the broadsword technique of one of the demonstrators.
About this period, Georges Charles cites the same masters as he did before (with slightly different spellings):
Subsequently, Master Ueshiba returned many times to the University of Kenkoku in Manchuria (Manchoukuo), and this until 1942, when he held the very prestigious position of Principal Imperial Instructor concerning Japanese Budo. He had on these various occasions many contacts with authentic Chinese Masters such as Zhou Xiang (Chou Hsiang), Yan Dewa (Yen Te Hwa) and Gao Yisheng (Kao I Sheng). Georges Charles - Le Rituel du Dragon p.459
Having some contacts with Chinese masters and learning from them is of course very different. Moreover, either Georges Charles thinks that three stays constitute many times , or he thinks that Ueshiba secretly visited China during this period, unbeknownst to all his students and his son, unless of course it is part of the cover up that he evokes in his book:
Unfortunately, the “Chinese” part of Master Ueshiba's teaching has always been obscured, because of being linked on the one hand to a mystical “sect”, the Omotokyo of Reverend Degushi [sic] and, on the other hand, not being in line with the Japanese nationalist spirit. It seems that now is the time to lift the veil somewhat on this hitherto unrecognized aspect of his most mystical teaching and closest to the Chinese classical tradition. Georges Charles - Le Rituel du Dragon p.459
Those who know the history of aikido may be surprised at such a sentence, because if there has been occultation, it is indeed the teachings of Takeda Sokaku that were often “edited out” of the official records, not Ueshiba’s devotion to Deguchi Onisaburo.Ueshiba, Kisshomaru – A Life in Aikido: The Biography of Founder Morihei Ueshiba Incidentally, in his book, Georges Charles also mentions the fact that the choice of the name aikido would have been the product of the last of these stays:
It was in Manchuria, therefore in China, that in July 1942 Master Ueshiba definitively decided to give the name of Aikido to his teaching. The first photo with these three characters dates from August 1942, and was taken at Kenkoku University, still in Manchuria. Master Ueshiba is seated, with Hideo Oba behind him, and next to Master Kenji Tomiki, behind whom is a Chinese practitioner named Liu Fangong.Georges Charles - Le Rituel du Dragon p. 459
It seems to me that the photo to which Georges Charles refers is the one reproduced below. Neither the term aikido nor aikibudo are visible, which does not prove much, since the argument is far-fetched to begin with. Of course, Georges Charles could be talking about a different photo, but I doubt it.
Sitting in front: Tomiki Kenji and Ueshiba Morihei. Standing right: Oba Hideo. Photo taken in 1942 in front of Shimbuden Hall at Kenkoku University in Manchuria.
More importantly, we know that the choice of the term aikido is the result of a discussion between Hirai Minoru and the executives of the Dai Nihon Butokukai who took place in 1942 in the absence of Ueshiba Morihei. Ueshiba Morihei gave his approval to the use of this name only a posteriori.
Still, even if, once again, it should not be the responsibility of those who doubt the theories cited above to provide counter-arguments, I would liek to propose a short resume of the origin of Ueshiba Morihei's technique.
Daito-ryu Aiki-jujutsu: The Japanese origin of Ueshiba Morihei's techniques
The origin of aikido techniques is no longer a mystery except for those, like perhaps Georges Charles, who do not wish to know it. People like Stanley Pranin, Peter Goldsbury, and Ellis Amdur have done much to improve our knowledge beyond any reasonable doubt, sometimes providing versions that were at odds with things that had been published prior to their work. Today, however, we know that it is an undeniable historical fact that Ueshiba Morihei learned Daito-ryu aiki-jujutsu from Takeda Sokaku,Pranin, Stanley – Morihei Ueshiba and Sokaku Takeda and that Daito-ryu constitutes the vast majority of the technical repertoire of Aikido.Driscol, John – Aikido / Daito-ryu correlation Here, contrary to the Chinese thesis, we have a good correlation and a causality. Ellis Amdur devotes a significant portion of his latest book to the study of Chinese influences on Ueshiba Morihei and Takeda Sokaku and although once again, Japan has taken a lot from China over the centuries, with respect to both the aforementioned individuals, their knowledge and their techniques have as most plausible origin a Japanese heritage (mainly sumo and some weapons techniques).Admur, Ellis – Hidden in Plain Sight: Tracing the Roots of Ueshiba Morihei’s Power
Regarding what some call "internal power", this teaching was indeed present in Takeda Sokaku's Daito-ryu aiki-jujutsu since it is possible to see it in the lineages created by other of his students who reached a level comparable to that of Ueshiba Morihei, such as Hisa Takuma, Sagawa Yukiyoshi, or Horikawa Kodo. According to Stanley Pranin, the practice of Ueshiba Morihei would have also benefited from certain breathing exercises and meditation practiced at the Omoto-kyoPranin, Stanley – The Elusive Chinese Influence on Aikido while Ellis Amdur considers that nothing of what Ueshiba Morihei was doing really goes beyond the framework of what can be found in Daito-ryu.Admur, Ellis - Personal communication
Conclusion
Once again, the purpose here is not to deny the influence that China has had on a lot of Japanese culture and philosophy, martial arts included. Ueshiba Morihei also certainly had the opportunity in his life to see great Chinese masters at work. Ueshiba himself spent his childhood in a Shingon temple studying Chinese classics. The philosophy of aikido is steeped in Chinese concepts, but if one really wants to rationally explain the technique and power of O Sensei, the vast majority of people who have undertaken serious historical research on the subject agree that he did not learn these techniques in China, but in Japan. Even if there were some similarities between aikido and baguazhang, which I think this is the basis of Frantzis' reasoning, correlation does not induce causation, and as long as proponents of Chinese theory do not have tangible proofs to bring forth, one will have to doubt their claims in favor of the facts which the enormous work of several historians has brought to light.
I thank Ellis Amdur and Christopher Li for soliciting their many contacts in Chinese martial arts to answer my questions.
